Language Learning Anxiety:

“a distinct complex of self-perceptions,
beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to
language learning arising from the uniqueness
of the (foreign) language learning process”
(Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128)

Language anxiety is a “negative emotional reaction that occurs during the perception, production, or
processing of the target language” and can be defined as a state or trait (Lindberg et al., 2023, p. 1413).

Trait Anxiety: a stable predisposition to feel anxious across various situations; a general tendency to be
anxious within an individual’s personality (Lindberg et al., 2023).

State Anxiety: a temporary emotional condition that arises in response to

specific situations or stimuli; for example, during a particular language learning task

or interaction (Lindberg et al., 2023).

Tip for educators: understanding the distinction between state and trait anxiety is

crucial. While trait anxiety represents a consistent aspect of an individual’s personality,

state anxiety can fluctuate based on situational factors. Recognizing and addressing the

sources of state anxiety in language learning environments can lead to more effective

strategies for reducing anxiety and improving learner outcomes.

Second language anxiety can appear as “observable behavioral challenges, poor learning, or
even physical ailments” (Al-Saraj, 2014, p. 52).

For example, a student may develop a fear of failing, be disruptive in class (ex. constant joking as
a defense mechanism), demonstrate increased difficulty in learning the target language, including
being unable to reproduce the sounds of the target language, and they may exhibit avoidance
behaviours (ex. missing class, arriving late, fidgeting) (Al-Saraj, 2014).

Furthermore, learners with second language anxiety may experience physical ailments such as
headaches or muscle tension (Oxford, 2005). They are also more “likely to underestimate their
competence in the language and to avoid engaging in behaviors that might be seen as risky, such
as speaking in class or attempting to communicate complex ideas (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994;
MacIntyre, Noels, & Clement, 1997; Steinberg & Horwitz, 1986)” (Al-Saraj, 2014, p. 52).

A learner exhibiting these behaviours may be labelled as “un-motivated,” while they are
really struggling with second language anxiety.

Second language anxiety is influenced by various situational factors that can affect learners’ comfort
and performance in language acquisition contexts. Key factors include:

Task Type & Complexity: complex or unfamiliar tasks often increase anxiety. For example, oral

presentations or debates can induce higher levels of anxiety due to the pressure to perform

accurately in front of an audience (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994).

Audience Presence & Evaluation: speaking in front of peers or being evaluated by teachers

often heightens anxiety, particularly when learners fear negative judgement (Horwitz et al.,

1986).

Teacher Behaviour & Feedback: the way teachers interact with students, provide feedback,

and manage the classroom can significantly influence anxiety levels. Supportive and

encouraging teachers who foster a welcoming environment tend to reduce anxiety (Young,

1991).

Peer Interactions & Group Work: collaborative activities can either alleviate or exacerbate anxiety
depending on group dynamics and students’ comfort with their peers. When teachers know their
students well, they can better determine who would be best suited to work together (Dewaele &
MacIntyre, 2014).

Cultural Differences & Social Norms: students from different cultural backgrounds may

experience anxiety when navigating unfamiliar norms or expectations in the language

classroom. Norms and expectations should be made clear and revisited frequently to

alleviate unnecessary stress (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2014).

Tip for educators: address situational factors affecting second language anxiety to create a supportive and low-
stress classroom environment. Some ways this may be achieved include:

Fostering a growth mindset: emphasize that making mistakes is a natural and valuable part

of language learning. Encourage students to view errors as opportunities for growth

rather than failure (Horwitz et al., 1986).

Providing positive & constructive feedback: use supportive language when correcting mistakes

to reduce fear of negative evaluation. For example, frame corrections as suggestions for

improvement rather than critiques (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002; Young, 1991).

Encouraging peer collaboration: design group activities that promote teamwork and mutual support,

which can reduce anxiety related to performance in front of the whole class. (Dewaele &

MacIntyre, 2014; Dörnyei, 1997).

Gradual exposure to challenging tasks: scaffold tasks to build students’ confidence. Start with low-stakes
activities and gradually introduce more complex tasks as their skills improve ( Ellis,

2008; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994).

Learning a language is
not about striving for
perfection; it’s about
fostering genuine,
human connections.

Learners can support one another in managing language learning anxiety through a variety of factors, ultimately
creating a supportive and engaging learning environment.

Peer Collaboration:

• Instills a sense of community and belonging; reduces feelings of isolation which may heighten anxiety.
• Collaboration allows learners to see that others make mistakes too, normalizing the learning process and
  alleviating self-consciousness.
• Practicing language with peers is low-stakes and less intimidating than performing in front of teachers or large
  groups.

(Horwitz, 2016; Young, 1991).

Peer Activities:

• Interactive activities such as role-play, games, or group projects shift focus from performance to participation,
  reducing stress.
• Real-life or simulated scenarios help learners see the practical use of language, building confidence in their
  abilities.
• Exercises that include a gradual increase in complexity, help learners build skills incrementally without feeling
  overwhelmed.

(Dörnyei, 2005).

Peer Assessment & Feedback:

• Reduces the intimidation often associated with teacher evaluations. Learners may feel more
  comfortable receiving feedback from peers, lowering anxiety levels.
• Encourages open dialogue-- peer feedback is less formal, reducing the fear of making
  mistakes.
• Boosts confidence by highlighting strengths as well as areas for improvement.
• Allows learners to see others’ progress and recognize their own achievements.
• Normalizes mistakes as a natural part of the learning process, reducing self-consciousness
  and perfectionism.
• Encourages empathy and mutual support.
• Increases engagement by requiring learners to actively analyze language use.
• Helps learners develop a sense of control over their progress.
• Builds relationships between peers, reducing feelings of isolation.

(Horwitz, 2016).

Peer collaboration, activities, assessment, and feedback can be combined to create a low-
pressure, inclusive environment that emphasizes growth, collaboration, and real-world
application. Together, this assists learners in building confidence, reducing self-consciousness,
and encouraging learners to take more risks with language.

Informal assessments enable teachers to regularly track the progress of their learners.
Because informal assessments are ongoing, they allow for continuous insights into learners’
progress throughout the semester or school year and, as a result, teachers can target areas
of difficulty and adapt instruction sooner rather than later (Colorín Colorado, n.d.).

It is important to note that standardized tests do not typically provide an accurate
representation of ESL learners’ knowledge or abilities. Informal assessments, on the other
hand, demonstrate a more comprehensive view of learners’ skills, abilities, and ongoing
progress (Colorín Colorado, n.d.).

Performance-based assessments (ex. oral reports, presentations, demonstrations, written
assignments, group projects) and portfolio assessments (ex. samples of written work,
drawings representing knowledge, recordings of oral work, test data/ rubrics, teacher
observations of accomplishments) are two types of informal assessments that can be used to
measure progress from day to day, both through teacher observation and self-assessment
(Colorín Colorado, n.d.).

So, how can informal assessments be beneficial for learners with second language anxiety?

Informal assessments can significantly benefit learners experiencing second language anxiety by creating a low-
stakes learning environment that builds confidence, fosters engagement, and furthers the development of L2
skills.

For example, informal assessments can:

1. Reduce performance pressure: less stress associated with grades allows learners to demonstrate their
   abilities without the fear of failure, which can lower anxiety levels and also encourages risk-taking in language
   use (Al-Saraj, 2014).
2. Provide immediate feedback: timely feedback from formative assessments is less intimidating than formal
   grading. In fact, immediate feedback can improve motivation and self-efficacy in learners (Saito et al., 1999).
3. Encourage a growth mindset: with informal assessments, the focus shifts from performance to progress,
   reinforcing that mistakes are a normal part of learning and are not something to be fearful of (Dweck, 2006).
4. Support individualized learning: teachers can adapt informal assessments to learners’ needs, providing a
   more personalized approach to help reduce anxiety and potential anxiety triggers (Krashen, 1982).
5. Create a more relaxed classroom environment: low-stakes activities, such as, journals, think-pair-share,
   and self- or peer-assessments promote a collaborative and non-judgemental atmosphere, making students
   feel more at ease when practicing their L2. (Young, 1991).

According to Dweck (2006), a growth mindset is the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed
through effort and persistence. Therefore, having a growth mindset is highly beneficial for learners
experiencing second language anxiety because it fosters resilience, motivation, and confidence in their
learning journey.

Key Benefits:

1. Reduces Fear of Mistakes: learners with L2 anxiety often fear embarrassment when speaking or
   writing in their second/ additional language. A growth mindset encourages learners to see errors as
   learning opportunities rather than setbacks (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002).
2. Increases Persistence: instead of feeling discouraged when having difficulties with pronunciation,
   grammar, or comprehension, learners with a growth mindset persist and seek strategies for
   improvement (Mercer & Ryan, 2010).
3. Builds Self-Efficacy: learners who believe they can improve are more likely to take risks, engage in
   conversations, and practice more frequently, leading to faster progress (Dörnyei, 2005).
4. Encourages Positive Self-Perception: Horwitz (1986) states that L2 anxiety is often linked to negative
   self-assessment. A growth mindset can help learners reframe their struggles as temporary rather than
   as permanent limitations.
5. Supports Autonomous Learning: leaners who adopt a growth mindset are more likely to seek feedback,
   use self-correction strategies, and develop independent learning habits, which can reduce anxiety over
   time (Zarrinabadi & Ketabi, 2014).

Objective: To assist second language learners in developing a growth mindset by reflecting on their progress,
recognizing challenges as opportunities for growth, and setting future goals.

Begin by introducing the concept of a growth mindset.

• discuss how learning a new language is a journey and mistakes are a natural part of learning
• **possible discussion questions on next page**

Create a language timeline.

• Have students draw a timeline of their language learning journey so far, include: first words or phrases
  learned, a time they struggled but persisted, a moment they felt proud of their progress, a goal they have
  for the future.

Reflect and share timelines.

• Provide sentence starters. Ex. “A challenge I faced was _____, but I overcame it by ______.” “One thing I
  want to improve on is ______, so I will try _______.”
• Ask students to share their timelines in small groups.
• Encourage students to provide positive feedback and encouragement to one another.

Follow-up.

• Display timelines in the classroom as a reminder of progress.
• Revisit timelines throughout the year to update goals and achievements.

1. What does having a growth mindset mean to you?
2. How do you usually react when you make a mistake? How could you
   reframe mistakes as a part of learning?
3. When you find something difficult, what strategies do you use to keep
   going?
4. How do you feel when you see others succeed at something you struggle
   with?
5. How do you handle constructive feedback?
6. Can you think of a time when you changed how you viewed a challenge?
   What happened?
7. What are some helpful phrases you can say to yourself when you feel like
   giving up?
8. In what ways can a growth mindset help you in school and life?
9. What is one goal you have right now and how can you use a growth
   mindset to achieve it?
10. How can you support a peer who may feel frustrated with their
    progress?

“It does not matter how
slowly you go, as long as
you do not stop.” -
Confucius

25 Growth Mindset Activities: https://www.weareteachers.com/growth-mindset/

Mindset Kit: https://www.mindsetkit.org/

Resources for Teaching a Growth Mindset: https://www.edutopia.org/article/growth-mindset-
resources/

How to Teach Growth Mindset to Teens: https://biglifejournal.com/blogs/blog/teaching-teens-
growth-mindset?
srsltid=AfmBOop5QirGpm0ByRvk4PF8J2vCtCeTWrB_VWIUzvy8Iug5vnWsDWcX

Fostering the ELL Growth Mindset: https://www.continentalpress.com/blog/ell-growth-
mindset/?srsltid=AfmBOor0Rmceam226mFM1Mi0Cw_AqjYhZyZ7Sg0M5jPudFrkDWxX3HkR

Nurturing Growth Mindsets in Language Learning: https://www.acacia.edu/blog/nurturing-
growth-mindsets-in-language-learning/

“Foreign language learning is inherently unique in that
students must attempt to express themselves in front of
other people who are often expected to evaluate and
possibly correct the students. Factors impacting
classroom dynamics, like broader social and cultural
contexts, must be considered in order to understand
students’ experiences as they strive to learn a new
language” (Al-Saraj, 2014, pp. 50-51).

Did you know that cultural awareness and appreciation play a crucial role in fostering a positive classroom
environment and reducing L2 anxiety?

Here’s how:

1. Creates an Inclusive & Respectful Atmosphere: when learners see that they are valued and represented in
   the classroom, they feel a sense of belonging. Moreover, an inclusive environment reduces feelings of isolation
   and increases engagement, making students feel more comfortable taking risks with their language learning
   (Colorín Colorado, n.d.).
2. Reduces Fear of Judgement: second language anxiety often comes from the fear of making mistakes or being
   judged by peers. However, when a classroom exhibits a culture of appreciation, students learn to see linguistic
   diversity as an asset, reducing the pressure to be “perfect” (Brainee, 2023; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2022).
3. Encourages Meaningful Communication: culturally responsive teaching incorporates learners’ backgrounds
   into learning, making the content more relevant and engaging. Students who connect personally to the material
   are more likely to participate and practice their language skills in an authentic manner (Brainee, 2023)
4. Enhances Peer Relationships: when learners are encouraged to share their cultural experiences, it fosters
   mutual respect and understanding. Healthy peer relationships contribute to a supportive learning environment in
   which learners feel safe using their second language (Colorín Colorado, n.d.; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2022).

• 5. Encourages a Growth Mindset: when learners understand that everyone
  brings different strengths to the classroom, they are more likely to persist
  despite the challenges (Brainee, 2023; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2022).
• 6. Leveraging Multimodal Literacies: encouraging learners to express
  themselves through art, music, storytelling, and digital media allows them to
  participate in ways that feel natural and authentic to them. This approach
  reduces anxiety by giving learners multiple ways to communicate beyond
  traditional speaking and writing tasks (Colorín Colorado, n.d.).
• 7. Promotes Student Voice & Identity: when learners’ languages and cultures
  are integrated into the curriculum, they develop confidence in their identities. A
  strong sense of identity can reduce anxiety and promote a more positive
  attitude toward learning a new language (Brainee, 2023; MacIntyre &
  Gregersen, 2022).

Multimodal literacies integrate various modes of communication, including visual,
auditory, gestural, and spatial elements, alongside traditional text, and have
been shown to alleviate second language anxiety (Lim & Kessler, 2023). In fact,
multimodal approaches to literacy can create a more dynamic and supportive
learning environment, reducing the stress associated with language acquisition
(Lim & Kessler, 2023).

• A study by He (2023) investigated the impact of multimodal literacy on language
  learning anxiety among middle school students, revealing that students exposed
  to multimodal instruction demonstrated improved academic performance and
  experienced a significant reduction in anxiety, specifically concerning fears of
  negative evaluation. Overall, incorporating diverse semiotic resources can boost
  learners’ self-confidence and lessen the unease often associated with language
  learning.

Another study by Floyd & Castek (2020), explored the intersection of
socioemotional learning, digital literacies, and L2 acquisition in a high school
classroom. In their study, learners engaged in creating multimodal content, such
as creating Instagram posts from the perspective of characters in a novel,
resulting in decreased language anxiety and enhanced empathy and
socioemotional growth. The use of authentic texts combined with digital tools
provided a relatable and less intimidating platform for language practice.

Including multimodal literacies in L2 education offers a holistic approach that
addresses both the cognitive and emotional challenges of language learning,
creating a more engaging and less stressful learning environment (Lim & Kessler,
2023.

1. Digital Storytelling: learners create digital stories using images, voice recordings,
   and text with tools like Adobe Spark, Canva, or Book Creator.
2. Comic Strip Retelling: learners summarize a novel, short story, or historical event
   using a comic strip (ex. Storyboard That).
3. Video or Podcast Reflections: learners record a vlog or podcast episode about
   their thoughts on a topic (ex. Anchor.fm).
4. Interactive Infographics: learners create an infographic summarizing a concept;
   for example, themes in a novel, grammar rules, etc... (Canva, Piktochart).
5. AR Vocabulary Hunt: learners scan QR codes or use AR apps to explore vocabulary
   words in context. (ex. seeing a 3D model of a historical artifact).
6. Social Media Role-Playing: learners create fictional social media posts or videos
   from a character’s perspective.
7. Music and Lyrics Analysis: learners analyze song lyrics, create a music video, or
   rewrite lyrics using newly learned vocabulary.
8. Multimodal Peer Feedback: learners use audio comments, emojis, and highlight tools
   to provide feedback.

According to Hafner & Miller (2011), incorporating digital tools into language learning enhances learners’
engagement, encourages multimodal expression, and supports second-language acquisition. The authors
emphasize that digital literacies, specifically in multimedia and online communication, not only shape
language learning in a positive way, but are essential for modern language learning.

Similarly, Jewitt (2008) notes that literacy is evolving beyond traditional reading and writing, highlighting
the importance of multimodal communication in the classroom, particularly how images, gestures,
sounds, and digital media contribute to meaning-making in education. She argues for a broader view of
literacy that includes digital and visual modes, advocating for more inclusive teaching approaches that
reflect 21st Century communication.

Additionally, Robin (2008) presents digital storytelling as an effective educational tool for integrating
technology, creativity, and student engagement. Digital storytelling comes with many benefits, including
improved communication skills, multimodal learning, and student motivation. Using digital storytelling in
the classroom can foster deeper learning through personal and collaborative narratives.

Looking specifically at digital storytelling and EFL learners’ speaking anxiety, Tahriri & Divsar (2011) found
digital storytelling to be an effective method for reducing learners’ speaking anxiety. Learners expressed
that they felt more comfortable with their English language skills after using images, music, and pre-
recorded narration to create digital stories. Tahriri & Divsar’s (2011) study supports the use of digital
storytelling as a means to create a low-stress environment for language learners.

Grade level: Middle Years ESL (adaptable for other ages/proficiencies)

Duration: 6 classes (estimate; will vary based on learners’ abilities)

Objective: Learners will create a short digital story using multimedia elements to
enhance their language skills while reducing second language anxiety. A specific topic
or a choice in topics can be provided by the teacher, depending on what the
students are learning at the time.

Overview: Digital storytelling combines text, images, audio, and video to create a
compelling narrative. This lesson encourages language learners to express
themselves in a multimodal format, supporting language learning, and reducing
anxiety by allowing learners to convey meaning beyond the traditional written or
spoken word.

Materials Needed: computers or tablets with internet access, digital storytelling
tools (Canva, Adobe Express, Book Creator), technology for recording narration (cell
phone with recording app, microphone, or other recording device), images, videos, or
drawings (learner-created or copyright-free), and graphic organizers for story
planning.

Class 1: Introduction to Digital Storytelling

• Begin with a warm-up discussion. Provide an example or multiple examples of a digital story. Discuss the elements that make it engaging.
• Explain what digital storytelling is and the benefits it provides for language learners. Highlight that they can use text, images, audio, and
  video to enhance their message or topic.
• Teachers can either provide a topic or a choice of topics depending on what is being learnt in class, or students can choose a personal
  experience, cultural story, or create a fictional tale.
• Provide students with time to brainstorm ideas. Utilize graphic organizers as needed.

Classes 2 & 3: Scripting and Visual Selection

• Draft the story: students plan a short script and storyboard outline. Encourage simple, clear language. Working with a peer or teacher-
  conferencing can help reduce writing anxiety.
• Select images, drawings, short video clips, music, etc... to complement the script.

Classes 4 & 5: Recording and Assembling

• Students practice reading their script aloud and record any narration needed for the digital story. Remind students not to get hung up
  on perfection.
• Using a digital storytelling tool, students should assemble their text, visuals, and audio.
• Edit, add transitions, and review work. Encourage or arrange for peer feedback.

Class 6: Presentation and Reflection

• Students present their digital stories in small groups.
• Reflect: students discuss what they have learned and how digital storytelling helped them express themselves/tell their story.
• If you are looking to see how digital storytelling impacted language learning anxiety, you may also ask if learners felt a reduction in L2
  anxiety throughout the project.

Did you know that strong L1 skills positively impact L2 learning and can reduce L2 anxiety?

In a longitudinal study, Sparks & Alamer (2023) found that strong L1 skills contributed to higher L2 aptitude, leading to
better L2 performance, and, as a result, lower anxiety levels. In fact, the authors found that L1 achievement is a
significant predictor of L2 reading anxiety, mediated by L2 aptitude, L2 achievement, and L1 metalinguistic
knowledge (Sparks & Alamer, 2023). This highlights the foundational role L1 competence plays in learning additional
languages-- a valuable insight for educators aiming to reduce L2 reading anxiety through targeted instruction based
on L1 reading strengths.

“...although studies have consistently found
negative correlations between second language (L2)
anxiety and L2 achievement,” researchers should
consider how other variables, such as L1
achievement, influence the relationship between
language anxiety and language achievement
(Sparks & Alamer, 2023, p. 2667).

Supporting L2 learners with weak L1 skills and subsequent L2 anxiety requires targeted strategies that
address both linguistic gaps and emotional barriers.

1. Strengthening Basic L1 Literacy (while supporting the L2) (Cummins, 2001; Garcia & Wei, 2014; Koda,
   2008)
   • Even minimal reinforcement of L1 skills (ex. phonemic awareness, vocabulary) can improve L2
     acquisition by strengthening metalinguistic awareness and cognitive flexibility.
2. Translanguaging Strategies (Canagarajah, 2011; Creese & Blackledge, 2010; Garcia & Lin, 2016)
   • Encouraging learners to use their full linguistic repertoire (even if their L1 is weak) in discussion,
     writing, and comprehension reduces anxiety and allows for meaning making.
3. Visual & Multimodal Scaffolding (Hafner et al., 2013; Hull & Nelson, 2005; Mayer, 2005)
   • Encouraging learners to use images, videos, graphic organizers, etc... reduces the reliance on
     linguistic knowledge and supports concept comprehension in both the L1 and L2.
4. Targeted Phonological Awareness (August & Shanahan, 2006; Koda, 2008; Sparks et al., 2008)
   • Difficulty with L1 phonological awareness often carries over to the L2, so explicit phonemic and
     phonological instruction (ex. syllable segmentation, minimal pairs) can improve pronunciation and
     decoding).
5. Growth Mindset & Affective Filter Reduction (Dweck, 2006; Krashen, 1982; Mercer & Ryan, 2016)
   • Teaching learners that language proficiency is not fixed and helping them develop a growth mindset
     can lower L2 anxiety and boost resilience.

1. Structured Peer Scaffolding (Ohta, 2001; Swain & Lapkin, 2000; Vygotsky, 1978)
   • Pairing learners with peers who share their L1 fosters low-anxiety collaboration, while pairing
     with stronger L2 speakers can allow for gradual modeling.
2. Identity Texts & Culturally Responsive Materials (Cummins, 2006; Norton, 2013; Toohey, 2000)
   • Encouraging learners to create texts in both their L1 and L2 helps build linguistic confidence
     and personal investment.
3. Repetitive Listening & Shadowing Techniques (Horwitz, 2010; Murphey, 1992; Nation & Newton,
   2009)
   • Repeated exposure to L2 audio (ex. stories, podcasts, music) combined with shadowing
     (mimicking speech) can improve fluency and reduce anxiety surrounding pronunciation.
4. Focus on Comprehensible Input & Output (Ellis, 1994; Krashen, 1982; Long, 1996)
   • Simplifying input by using clear, graded language and gradually pushing output through low-
     stakes activities can reduce anxiety and cognitive overload.
5. Strengthening Executive Functioning & Self- Regulation (Dörnyei, 2001; Vandergrift & Goh,
   2012; Zimmerman, 2002)
   • Many learners with weak L1 skills may also struggle with working memory and cognitive control,
     so explicitly teaching metacognitive strategies (ex. goal setting, self-monitoring) supports L2
     learning.

The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was developed by Horwitz,
Horwitz, & Cope in 1986 as a tool for measuring anxiety in language learning contexts.
While it is still widely used, several critiques have emerged regarding its efficacy and
scope:

1. The FLCAS may unintentionally measure learners’ perception of their language
   learning skills rather than isolating anxiety as a separate factor. Furthermore, the
   scale may be conflating language proficiency with anxiety levels, leading to questions
   about its ability to measure only language anxiety (Sparks & Ganschow, 2007).
2. Many studies utilizing the FLCAS do not account for confounding variables, such as
   L1 achievement or L2 aptitude. Without considering these factors, it is difficult to
   determine whether the FLCAS is measuring anxiety or language skill deficiencies
   (Sparks & Alamer, 2023).
3. Language achievement may predict anxiety, rather than anxiety hindering language
   achievement. This challenges the foundational assumption of the FLCAS that anxiety
   negatively impacts language learning, suggesting instead that weak L1 skills -- and
   subsequent L2 skills -- may lead to increased anxiety (Sparks & Alamer, 2023).
4. The FLCAS may not be applicable across diverse cultural settings as it does not
   account for the unique sources of anxiety experienced by learners in different
   cultural contexts (Al-Saraj, 2014).

1. Language Learning Journals (Dweck, 2006; Oxford, 2016):
   • Learners reflect on progress, challenges, and strategies. Teachers provide feedback
     that reinforces metacognition and a growth mindset.
2. Peer Support Circles (Vygotsky, 1978; Swain 2000)
   • Small groups discuss experiences, share strategies, and provide emotional support,
     leveraging scaffolding and social interaction for language development.
3. Personalized Goal Setting (Zimmerman, 2002; Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011)
   • Learners set small, achievable goals, track progress, and reflect, promoting self-
     regulation and motivation.
4. Identity Texts (Cummins, 2006; Norton, 2013)
   • Learners create multimodal projects (ex. digital stories, videos, comics) incorporating
     their L1 and L2, affirming linguistic identity and self-efficacy.
5. Growth Mindset Language Pledge (Dweck, 2006; Mercer & Ryan, 2016)
   • Learners co-create affirmations (ex. “mistakes help me learn”) and display them in the
     classroom, reinforcing positive self-talk and persistence.

1. Low-Stakes Speaking Opportunities (Horwitz, 2010; Krashen, 1982)
   • Learners gradually build speaking confidence through partnered dialogues, voice
     recordings, and role plays in a low-anxiety context.
2. Bilingual Buddy System (García & Wei, 2014; Swain & Lapkin, 2000)
   • Pair learners with more proficient peers to scaffold L2 learning while valuing
     translanguaging practices.
3. Choice-Based Speaking Tasks (Dörnyei, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000)
   • Encourage learners to select presentation topics related to personal interests,
     increasing intrinsic motivation and engagement.
4. Interactive Digital Discussions (Hafner et al., 2013; Warschauer, 2000)
   • Use Flipgrid, Padlet, or other online forums to provide asynchronous, low-stakes means
     for learners to practice L2 expression.
5. Drama & Improvisation Games (Schewe, 2013; Kao & O’Neill, 1998)
   • Utilize activities like charades, role-playing, and improv games to create fun,
     spontaneous language use in a low-stakes setting.

1. Student-Led Teaching Moments (Freire, 1970; Vygotsky, 1978)
   • Learners teach a mini-lesson on a skill they feel confident in, fostering agency, peer
     learning, and self-efficacy.
2. Multimodal Storytelling (Hull & Nelson, 2005; Hafner, 2013)
   • Learners create digital stories using visuals, audio, and text to support multiple modes of
     expression, reducing language anxiety.
3. Music & Lyrics Exploration (Medina, 1993; Murphey, 1992)
   • Learners analyze and rewrite song lyrics to enhance language acquisition, phonological
     awareness, and personal connections to their L2.
4. Classroom “Failure” Celebrations (Dweck, 2006; Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002)
   • Learners share mistakes and learning moments, reinforcing resilience and a growth
     mindset, while reducing anxiety.

Anxiety Canada: https://www.anxietycanada.com/learn-about-anxiety/anxiety-in-children/

My Anxiety Plan (MAP) for Children & Teens: https://maps.anxietycanada.com/courses/anxiety-plan-
children-teens/

Tackling Anxiety: Practical Strategies for Children & Youth: https://keltymentalhealth.ca/podcastanxiety

Children, Youth, and Anxiety: https://cmha.ca/brochure/children-youth-and-anxiety/

Multicultural Mental Health Resource Centre: https://multiculturalmentalhealth.ca/

CAMH, Anxiety: Resources & References: https://www.camh.ca/en/professionals/treating-conditions-
and-disorders/anxiety-disorders/anxiety--resources-and-references

Second language anxiety significantly impacts learners’ motivation, confidence,
and overall language acquisition. As highlighted throughout this resource,
factors such as task type and complexity, fear of negative evaluation, the
classroom environment, cultural differences, and weak L1 skills can contribute
to L2 anxiety. By integrating culturally responsive teaching methods, fostering
a supportive classroom environment, encouraging a growth mindset, and
employing the use of informal assessments, multimodal literacies, peer
collaboration, and targeted strategies to support learners who struggle with
their L1 and subsequently their L2, teachers can work to effectively mitigate
second language anxiety. Empowering teachers with these tools not only
enhances student engagement but also promotes a more inclusive and
meaningful language learning experience.

I hope this resource provided you with both the background information and
the practical skills and strategies needed to support learners experiencing
second language anxiety. Having personally experienced second language
anxiety—particularly the fear of negative evaluation—I believe it is essential
for teachers to understand how L2 anxiety affects their learners. With
greater awareness, teachers will be better able to support learners
throughout their language learning journeys. - Jaiden Evans